Unlocking the potential of olive residues for functional purposes: update on human intervention trials with health and cosmetic products.

Olive mill waste (OMW) is a promising source of valuable compounds such as polyphenols, terpenes, sterols, and other bioactive compounds, which are of interest to the pharmaceuticals and cosmeceutical industries. This review examines the potential of OMW extracts for health and beauty applications based on evidence reports from human clinical trials. The results achieved to date indicate health-enhancing properties, but little is known about the underlying mechanisms of action, dose-response relationships, and long-term impacts. Therefore, while olive by-products, extracted using eco-friendly methods, present opportunities for the development of high-value health and cosmetic products, further studies are necessary to determine the full range of their effects and establish specific therapeutic strategies. © 2024 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

The Antiobesity Effects of Rosehip (Rosa canina) Flesh by Antagonizing the PPAR Gamma Activity in High-Fat Diet-Fed Mice.

SCOPE: The rosehip (Rosa canina) is a perennial shrub with a reddish pseudofruit that has demonstrated antidiabetic, antiatherosclerotic, and antiobesogenic effects in rodent models but there is low information about the molecular mechanisms underlying these effects on the onset and progression of diet-induced obesity. METHODS AND RESULTS: Four-week-old C57BL/6J male mice are subjected to a high-fat diet (HFD)-supplemented or not with R. canina flesh for 18 weeks. The results indicated that the R. canina flesh exerts a preventive effect on HFD-induced obesity with a significant reduction in body-weight gain and an improvement of hyperglycemia and insulin resistance caused by a HFD. At the tissue level, subcutaneous white adipose tissue exhibits a higher number of smaller adipocytes, with decreased lipogenesis. On its side, the liver shows a significant decrease in lipid droplet content and in the expression of genes related to lipogenesis, fatty acid oxidation, and glucose metabolism. Finally, the data suggest that most of these effects agree with the presence of a putative Perosxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) antagonist in the R. canina flesh. CONCLUSIONS: R. canina flesh dietary supplementation slows down the steatotic effect of a HFD at least in part through the regulation of the transcriptional activity of PPARγ.

Novel insights into enzymes inhibitory responses and metabolomic profile of supercritical fluid extract from chestnut shells upon intestinal permeability.

The health benefits of chestnut (Castanea sativa) shells (CSs) have been ascribed to phytochemicals, mainly phenolic compounds. Nevertheless, an exhaustive assessment of their intestinal absorption is vital considering a possible nutraceutical application. This study evaluated the bioactivity of CSs extract prepared by Supercritical Fluid Extraction and untargeted metabolomic profile upon in-vitro intestinal permeation across a Caco-2/HT29-MTX co-culture model. The results demonstrated the neuroprotective, hypoglycemic, and hypolipidemic properties of CSs extract by inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, α-amylase, and lipase activities. The untargeted metabolic profiling by LC-ESI-LTQ-Orbitrap-MS unveiled almost 60 % of lipids and 30 % of phenolic compounds, with 29 metabolic pathways indicated by enrichment analysis. Among phenolics, mostly phenolic acids, flavonoids, and coumarins permeated the intestinal barrier with most metabolites arising from phase I reactions (reduction, hydrolysis, and hydrogenation) and a minor fraction from phase II reactions (methylation). The permeation rates enhanced in the following order: ellagic acid < o-coumaric acid < p-coumaric acid < ferulaldehyde ≤ hydroxyferulic acid ≤ dihydroferulic acid < ferulic acid < trans-caffeic acid < trans-cinnamic acid < dihydrocaffeic acid, with better outcomes for 1000 µg/mL of extract concentration and after 4 h of permeation. Taken together, these findings sustained a considerable in-vitro intestinal absorption of phenolic compounds from CSs extract, enabling them to reach target sites and exert their biological effects.

Oleacein and Oleocanthal: Key Metabolites in the Stability of Extra Virgin Olive Oil.

The oxidative stability of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) depends on its composition, primarily, phenolic compounds and tocopherols, which are strong antioxidants, but also carotenoids, squalene, and fatty acids contribute. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of malaxation conditions and olive storage on the composition of 'Corbella' EVOO produced in an industrial mill to determine which parameters and compounds could give more stable oils. Although a longer malaxation time at a higher temperature and olive storage had a negative effect on the content of α-tocopherol, squalene, flavonoids, lignans, phenolic acids, and phenolic alcohols, the antioxidant capacity and oxidative stability of the oil were improved because of an increase in the concentration of oleacein (56-71%) and oleocanthal (42-67%). Therefore, these two secoiridoids could be crucial for better stability and a longer shelf life of EVOOs, and their enhancement should be promoted. A synergistic effect between secoiridoids and carotenoids could also contribute to EVOO stability. Additionally, 'Corbella' cultivar seems to be a promising candidate for the production of EVOOs with a high oleic/linoleic ratio. These findings signify a notable advancement and hold substantial utility and significance in addressing and enhancing EVOO stability.

Simulated Gastrointestinal Digestion of Chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) Shell Extract Prepared by Subcritical Water Extraction: Bioaccessibility, Bioactivity, and Intestinal Permeability by In Vitro Assays.

Chestnut shells (CSs) are an appealing source of bioactive molecules, and constitute a popular research topic. This study explores the effects of in vitro gastrointestinal digestion and intestinal permeability on the bioaccessibility and bioactivity of polyphenols from CS extract prepared by subcritical water extraction (SWE). The results unveiled higher phenolic concentrations retained after gastric and intestinal digestion. The bioaccessibility and antioxidant/antiradical properties were enhanced in the following order: oral < gastric ≤ intestinal digests, attaining 40% of the maximum bioaccessibility. Ellagic acid was the main polyphenol in the digested and undigested extract, while pyrogallol-protocatechuic acid derivative was only quantified in the digests. The CS extract revealed potential mild hypoglycemic (<25%) and neuroprotective (<75%) properties before and after in vitro digestion, along with upmodulating the antioxidant enzymes' activities and downregulating the lipid peroxidation. The intestinal permeation of ellagic acid achieved 22.89% after 240 min. This study highlighted the efficacy of the CS extract on the delivery of polyphenols, sustaining its promising use as nutraceutical ingredient.

Metabolomic insights into phenolics-rich chestnut shells extract as a nutraceutical ingredient - A comprehensive evaluation of its impacts on oxidative stress biomarkers by an in-vivo study.

The present study attempted for the first time to explore the effects of the daily oral intake of a phenolics-rich extract from chestnut shells (CS) on the metabolomic profiling of rat tissues by liquid chromatography coupled to Orbitrap-mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-LTQ-Orbitrap-MS) targeted to polyphenolics and their metabolites and screen potential oxidative stress biomarkers, validating its use as a promising nutraceutical ingredient with outstanding antioxidant properties for the prevention and co-therapy of lifestyle-related diseases triggered by oxidative stress. The results demonstrated new insights into the metabolomic fingerprinting of polyphenols from CS, confirming their absorption and biotransformation by phase I (hydrogenation) and II (glucuronidation, methylation, and sulfation) enzymes. Phenolic acids were the main polyphenolic class, followed by hydrolyzable tannins, flavanols, and lignans. In contrast to the liver, sulfated conjugates were the principal metabolites reaching the kidneys. The multivariate data analysis predicted an exceptional contribution of polyphenols and their microbial and phase II metabolites to the in-vivo antioxidant response of the CS extract in rats, recommending its use as an appealing source of anti-aging molecules for nutraceuticals. This is the first study that explored the relation between metabolomic profiling of rat tissues and in-vivo antioxidant effects after oral treatment with a phenolics-rich CS extract.

Tomato wastes and by-products: upcoming sources of polyphenols and carotenoids for food, nutraceutical, and pharma applications.

Tomato pomace, a waste product consisting of peels, seeds, rich on fibrous matter, represents an underutilized source of bioactive compounds, such as polyphenols and carotenoids. Here we present a three-pronged review of the circular utilization of tomato waste in line with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. First, we explain why tomato waste is important, highlighting the processing techniques that generate it. The bioactive compounds in these by-products are then comprehensively reviewed, focusing especially on phenolic compounds and carotenoids and the methods used for their extraction. Finally, we examine the potential of these bioactive ingredients for application in food systems and pharmaceutical products.

Recent advances in bio-based extraction processes for the recovery of bound phenolics from agro-industrial by-products and their biological activity.

Usually found bound to other complex molecules (e.g., lignin, hemicellulose), phenolic compounds (PC) are widely present in agro-industrial by-products, and their extraction is challenging. In recent times, research is starting to highlight the bioactive roles played by bound phenolics (BPC) in human health. This review aims at providing a critical update on recent advances in green techniques for the recovery of BPC, focusing on enzymatic-assisted (EAE) and fermentation-assisted extraction (FAE) as well as in the combination of technologies, showing variable yield and features. The present review also summarizes the most recent biological activities attributed to BPC extracts until now. The higher antioxidant activity of BPC-compared to FPC-coupled with their affordable by-product source make them medicinally potent and economically viable, promoting their integral upcycling and generating new revenue streams, business, and employment opportunities. In addition, EAE and FAE can have a biotransformative effect on the PC itself or its moiety, leading to improved extraction outcomes. Moreover, recent research on BPC extracts has reported promising anti-cancer and anti-diabetic activity. Yet further research is needed to elucidate their biological mechanisms and exploit the true potential of their applications in terms of new food products or ingredient development for human consumption.

Urinary metabolomics of phenolic compounds reveals biomarkers of type-2 diabetes within the PREDIMED trial.

BACKGROUND: Phenolic compounds have been associated with protective effects against type-2 diabetes (T2D). We used a metabolomics approach to determine urinary phenolic metabolites associated with T2D and fasting plasma glucose. METHODS: This case-control study within the PREDIMED trial included 200 participants at high cardiovascular risk, 102 of whom were diagnosed with T2D. A panel of urinary phenolic compounds were analysed using a novel method based on liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Multivariate statistics and adjusted logistic regressions were applied to determine the most discriminant compounds and their association with T2D. The relationship between the discriminant phenolic compounds and plasma glucose was assessed using multivariable linear regressions. RESULTS: A total of 41 phenolic compounds were modeled in the orthogonal projection to latent structures discriminant analysis, and after applying adjusted logistic regressions two were selected as discriminant: dihydrocaffeic acid (OR = 0.22 (CI 95 %: 0.09; 0.52) per 1-SD, p-value = 0.021) and genistein diglucuronide (OR = 0.72 (CI 95%: 0.59; 0.88) per 1-SD, p-value = 0.021). Both metabolites were associated with a lower risk of suffering from T2D, but only dihydrocaffeic acid was inversely associated with plasma glucose (ß = -17.12 (95 % CI: -29.92; -4.32) mg/dL per 1-SD, p-value = 0.009). CONCLUSIONS: A novel method using a metabolomics approach was developed to analyse a panel of urinary phenolic compounds for potential associations with T2D, and two metabolites, dihydrocaffeic acid and genistein diglucuronide, were found to be associated with a lower risk of this condition.

Urinary Phenolic Metabolites Associated with Peanut Consumption May Have a Beneficial Impact on Vascular Health Biomarkers.

Phenolic compounds in peanuts may moderate inflammation and endothelial function. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the association of urinary phenolic metabolites (UPMs) with vascular biomarkers after peanut product consumption. A three-arm parallel-group randomized controlled trial was conducted in 63 healthy young adults who consumed 25 g/day of skin roasted peanuts (SRP), 32 g/day of peanut butter (PB), or 32 g/day of a control butter for six months. UPMs were analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Additionally, urinary eicosanoids, prostacyclin I2 (PGI2), and thromboxane A2 (TXA2) were determined using two competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits. Consumers of SRP and PB presented significantly higher excretion of UPMs (enterodiol glucuronide (p = 0.018 and p = 0.031), 3-hydroxybenzoic acid (p = 0.002 and p < 0.001), vanillic acid sulfate (p = 0.048 and p = 0.006), p-coumaric acid (p = 0.046 and p = 0.016), coumaric acid glucuronide I (p = 0.001 and p = 0.030) and II (p = 0.003 and p = 0.036), and isoferulic acid (p = 0.013 and p = 0.015) in comparison with the control group. An improvement in PGI2 (p = 0.037) levels and the TXA2:PGI2 ratio (p = 0.008) was also observed after the peanut interventions compared to the control. Interestingly, UPMs with significantly higher post-intervention levels were correlated with an improvement in vascular biomarkers, lower TXA2 (r from -0.25 to -0.48, p < 0.050) and TXA2:PGI2 ratio (r from -0.25 to -0.43, p < 0.050) and higher PGI2 (r from 0.24 to 0.36, p < 0.050). These findings suggest that the UPMs with higher excretion after peanut product consumption could have a positive impact on vascular health.

Development and Characterization of Functional Cookies Enriched with Chestnut Shells Extract as Source of Bioactive Phenolic Compounds.

Chestnut (Castanea sativa) shells (CSs), an undervalued agro-industrial biowaste, have arisen as a source of bioactive compounds with promising health-promoting effects. This study attempted, for the first time, to develop a functional food, namely cookies, using a CS extract obtained by an eco-friendly technology (subcritical water extraction). The cookies were characterized regarding their nutritional composition, total phenolic and flavonoid contents (TPC and TFC, respectively), antioxidant/antiradical activities, phenolic profile, and sensory evaluation. The results demonstrated that the CS-extract-enriched cookies were mainly composed of carbohydrates (53.92% on dry weight (dw)), fat (32.62% dw), and fiber (5.15% dw). The phenolic profile outlined by HPLC-PDA revealed the presence of phenolic acids, flavonoids, and hydrolysable tannins, attesting to the high TPC and TFC. The in vitro antioxidant/antiradical effects proved the bioactivity of the functional cookies, while the sensory evaluation unveiled excellent scores on all attributes (≥6.25). The heatmap diagram corroborated strong correlations between the TPC and antioxidant/antiradical properties, predicting that the appreciated sensory attributes were closely correlated with high carbohydrates and phenolic compounds. This study encourages the sustainable recovery of antioxidants from CSs and their further employment as an active nutraceutical ingredient in functional cookies.

Current strategies to guarantee the authenticity of coffee.

As they become more health conscious, consumers are paying increasing attention to food quality and safety. In coffee production, fraudulent strategies to reduce costs and maximize profits include mixing beans from two species of different economic value, the addition of other substances and/or foods, and mislabeling. Therefore, testing for coffee authenticity and detecting adulterants is required for value assessment and consumer protection. Here we provide an overview of the chromatography, spectroscopy, and single-nucleotide polymorphism-based methods used to distinguish between the major coffee species Arabica and Robusta. This review also describes the techniques applied to trace the geographical origin of coffee, based mainly on the chemical composition of the beans, an approach that can discriminate between coffee-growing regions on a continental or more local level. Finally, the analytical techniques used to detect coffee adulteration with other foods and/or coffee by-products are discussed, with a look at the practice of adding pharmacologically active compounds to coffee, and their harmful effects on health.

Appraisal of a new potential antioxidants-rich nutraceutical ingredient from chestnut shells through in-vivo assays - A targeted metabolomic approach in phenolic compounds.

Chestnut (Castanea sativa) shells (CSS) are a source of bioactive compounds with well demonstrated in-vitro antioxidant properties. Nevertheless, no in-vivo studies have already evaluated this effect. This study evaluated the effects of the oral daily administration of an eco-friendly CSS extract (50 and 100 mg/kg per body weight (b.w.)) to rats regarding in-vivo antioxidant activity, glucose and lipids levels, and metabolomic profiling of polyphenols by LC-ESI-LTQ-Orbitrap-MS. The results demonstrated the in-vivo antioxidant properties in the animals liver, kidney and blood serum, as well as protective effects against hemolysis and rising of blood glucose and lipids levels. New insights on metabolomic profiling of polyphenols proved their absorption and further biotransformation by phase I (hydrogenation and hydroxylation) and II reactions (glucuronidation, methylation and sulfation). This is the first study that attempted to validate a novel nutraceutical ingredient extracted from CSS byin-vivoassays, corroborating the outcomes screened by in-vitro assays.

The Effects of Differentiated Organic Fertilization on Tomato Production and Phenolic Content in Traditional and High-Yielding Varieties.

The challenge of sustainable agriculture is to increase yields and obtain higher quality products. Increased antioxidant compounds such as polyphenols in harvest products may be an added value for sustainable agriculture. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether three organic fertilization treatments with different levels of carbon and nitrogen, i.e., N-rich, N-rich+C, and N-poor+C, affected the phenolic content of different tomato varieties. The examined parameters were productivity, plant nutritional status, δ13C, and tomato phenolic content as an indication of the antioxidant capacity. The best production was obtained with 'Cornabel', a high-yielding Pebroter variety. The total phenolic content was highest in the traditional 'Cuban Pepper' variety regardless of treatment, while naringenin levels were high in all the Pebroter varieties. In N-poor+C fertilized plants, a lower N-NO3 content in leaves was correlated with higher levels of total polyphenols in the fruit. The high-water stress suffered by Montserrat varieties coincided with a low total phenolic content in the tomatoes. In conclusion, organic fertilization with reduced N did not influence the tomato yield but positively affected phenolic compound levels in varieties less sensitive to water stress.

Microbial Phenolic Metabolites in Urine Are Inversely Linked to Certain Features of Metabolic Syndrome in Spanish Adolescents.

(1) Background: To explore the association between microbial phenolic metabolites (MPM) and metabolic syndrome (MetS) and its clinical features in adolescents aged 12.02 ± 0.41 years. (2) Methods: a cross-sectional study was conducted in 560 participants at baseline in the SI! Program for Secondary Schools trial. The following MPM, coumaric acids (m-, o-, p-coumaric acids), dihydroxyphenylpropionic acid, dihydroresveratrol, enterolignans, gallic acid, hydroxybenzoic acids, hydroxyphenylacetic acid, hydroxytyrosol, protocatechuic acid, syringic acid, urolithins (A, B), and vanillic acid, were analyzed by HPLC-LTQ-Orbitrap-HRMS. MetS and its clinical features were defined in accordance with the International Diabetes Federation. (3) Results: Out of all MPM, urolithin A was inversely associated with the diastolic blood pressure z-score. Urolithin B was inversely associated with the MetS score and waist circumference z-score. Additionally, higher levels of gallic acid were associated with lower odds of presenting MetS (OR = 0.85, 95% CI: 0.77; 0.93) and abdominal obesity (OR = 0.93, 95% CI: 0.89; 0.98). Higher urolithin B levels were inversely associated with abdominal obesity (OR = 0.94, 95% CI: 0.89; 0.98) and high blood glucose (OR = 0.92, 95% CI:0.88; 0.96); (4) Conclusions: gallic acid, urolithin A and B were associated with lower odds of presenting MetS or some of its clinical features in adolescents. This is the first study that evaluates several MPM with MetS in adolescents, highlighting the importance of MPM on cardiometabolic health at early life stages.

Aromatic, Sensory, and Fatty Acid Profiles of Arbequina Extra Virgin Olive Oils Produced Using Different Malaxation Conditions.

The demand for high-quality extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) is growing due to its unique characteristics. The aroma and flavor of EVOO depend on its content of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), whose formation is affected by the olive variety and maturity index, and the oil production process. In this study, the sensory quality and VOC and fatty acid (FA) profiles were determined in Arbequina olive oils produced by applying different malaxation parameters (20, 25, and 30 °C, and 30 and 45 min). All the olive oils were classified as EVOO by a sensory panel, regardless of the production conditions. However, cold extraction at 20 °C resulted in more positive sensory attributes (complexity). The FA concentration increased significantly with the malaxation temperature, although the percentage profile remained unaltered. Finally, an OPLS-DA model was generated to identify the discriminating variables that separated the samples according to the malaxation temperature. In conclusion, the tested range of malaxation parameters appeared not to degrade the distinctive attributes/organoleptic profile of olive oil and could be applied to obtain an EVOO of high sensory quality, especially at 20 °C.

Sweet Potato Is Not Simply an Abundant Food Crop: A Comprehensive Review of Its Phytochemical Constituents, Biological Activities, and the Effects of Processing.

Nowadays, sweet potato (Ipomoea batata L.; Lam.) is considered a very interesting nutritive food because it is rich in complex carbohydrates, but as a tubercle, contains high amounts of health-promoting secondary metabolites. The aim of this review is to summarize the most recently published information on this root vegetable, focusing on its bioactive phytochemical constituents, potential effects on health, and the impact of processing technologies. Sweet potato is considered an excellent source of dietary carotenoids, and polysaccharides, whose health benefits include antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective activity, cardiovascular protection, anticancer properties and improvement in neurological and memory capacity, metabolic disorders, and intestinal barrier function. Moreover, the purple sweet potato, due to its high anthocyanin content, represents a unique food option for consumers, as well as a potential source of functional ingredients for healthy food products. In this context, the effects of commercial processing and domestic cooking techniques on sweet potato bioactive compounds require further study to understand how to minimize their loss.

Identification and Quantification of Urinary Microbial Phenolic Metabolites by HPLC-ESI-LTQ-Orbitrap-HRMS and Their Relationship with Dietary Polyphenols in Adolescents.

This study aimed to develop and validate a liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization-linear ion trap quadrupole-Orbitrap-high-resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC/ESI-LTQ-Orbitrap-HRMS) method to identify and quantify urinary microbial phenolic metabolites (MPM), as well as to explore the relationship between MPM and dietary (poly)phenols in Spanish adolescents. A total of 601 spot urine samples of adolescents aged 12.02 ± 0.41 years were analyzed. The quantitative method was validated for linearity, limit of detection, limit of quantification, recovery, intra- and inter-day accuracy and precision, as well as postpreparative stability according to the criteria established by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists International. A total of 17 aglycones and 37 phase II MPM were identified and quantified in 601 spot urine samples. Phenolic acids were the most abundant urinary MPM, whereas stilbenes, hydroxytyrosol, and enterodiol were the least abundant. Urinary hydroxycoumarin acids (urolithins) were positively correlated with flavonoid and total (poly)phenol intake. An HPLC-ESI-LTQ-Orbitrap-HRMS method was developed and fully validated to quantify MPM. The new method was performed accurately and is suitable for MPM quantification in large epidemiological studies. Urinary lignans and urolithins are proposed as potential biomarkers of grain and nut intake in an adolescent population.

Nutrition during pregnancy and lactation: New evidence for the vertical transmission of extra virgin olive oil phenolic compounds in rats.

Maternal breast milk provides the newborn with passive immunity and stimulates the maturation of the infant immune system. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the vertical transmission of phenolic compounds and their metabolites to offspring in rats fed with extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) during pregnancy and lactation. For this purpose, plasma and lactic serum from dams and plasma from offspring were analyzed by LC-ESI-LTQ-Orbitrap-MS. Both enzymatic and microbial metabolites of hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol were detected in dam plasma and lactic serum. In addition, significant levels of phenolic compounds and their metabolites were found in offspring plasma. The concentration and number of hydroxytyrosol derivatives was higher than those of tyrosol and the microbial metabolites were found in the highest concentration. The observed vertical transmission of EVOO phenolic compounds, whose health benefits are widely reported, provides further support for the importance of the maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation.

New insights into the lipidomic response of CaCo-2 cells to differently cooked and in vitro digested extra-virgin olive oils.

The health benefits of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) are far proven. However, considering that this oil is consumed also cooked, this work aimed to evaluate the impact of different cooking techniques on human colorectal adenocarcinoma cells (Caco-2) exposed to in vitro digested EVOO. In particular, the effect of different cooking methods, namely sauteing, deep-frying, and Roner®, was assayed and compared to a raw EVOO sample. The Caco-2 cell lysates were analyzed through an untargeted lipidomics approach, and multivariate statistics were used to identify the marker compounds of the differences in cells' lipidomic signatures. Despite representing the cooking at the lowest temperature (but longer time), cells exposed to Roner® cooked EVOO presented the most distinguished lipidomic profile. The markers of differences in Caco-2 could be related to oxidative stress-related compounds such as oxidized glutathione, diketogulonic acid, ceramides, and diglycerides. Taken together, our findings indicate that the differences in EVOO composition determined by cooking could impose significant lipidomic perturbation on the human intestinal cells.